The, Memory, And Perception - 3838 Words

Abstract Age, memory, and perception seem to impact each other throughout human development. As humans age is perceived that their memories change because of time, social norms, and age. Cognition is an important part of memory as it defines itself as the method by which humans identify and comprehend things. As humans age perceptions change which can impact how memories are identified, comprehended, and articulated. It is perceived that the younger the person the better and more accurate the memories or recall of the events will occur. There are also other questions concerning this area such as at what age does this happen, does middle age to older adults have better memory recall than teenage to young adults. Determining possible factors will be the underlying reason for this paper. Is it the first time that parent’s call their children the wrong name, when one cannot remember where something was placed, or the description of an event was depicted with a person’s biases? Human memory is involved in all of these types of experiences. How does perception and age impact memory over a life span? In a recent study by Karpicke and Lehmann, 2013, memory was defined generally as capability to utilize the previous information in the assistance of the here and now and they discussed three different types of memory. There are different types of memory, for example when one relies on their previous practices in which a series of motor skill actions are used to completeShow MoreRelatedPerception, Introspection, Reason And Memory Essay1491 Words   |  6 PagesThere are four different sources of knowledge: perception, introspection, reason and memory. All our knowledge roots from our perception. Perception is the way humans sense the world outside the body. We perceive through our five senses: see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. Humans gain knowledge through experiences and experience through perception. Usually we can trust our senses to perceive our surroundings effectively but there are times we misperceive. Illusions, hallucinations or impedimentsRead MoreEssay about Perceptions of Persistence of Memory773 Words   |  4 PagesPerceptions of Persistence of Memory Although visual art is looked upon differently by all, everyone has a either a favorite piece or at least something that catches their eye. Personally, I don’t have a piece of art that I would label my absolute favorite, but during a Spanish research project found that Salvador Dali’s work really stood out. â€Å"The Persistence of Memory† painted in 1931 by Dali, a highly renowned surrealist painter, is among the most interesting works I have ever seen. EvenRead MorePsychological Processes- Motivation, Perception, Learning and Memory745 Words   |  3 PagesPsychological Processes- Motivation, Perception, Learning and Memory Introduction Psychological Processes performing any type of activity that we use Ð ° variety of processes like thinking, remembering, problem solving, interpretation etc. Thus whether you study Ð ° lesson, view Ð ° cinema, talk on Ð ° topic, we are using psychological processes of which we may or may not be aware. Discussion Motivation: - Ð  person has many needs at any given time. Some are biological arising from hunger, thirst andRead MoreShort-term Memory Affects Color Perception in Context Essay examples668 Words   |  3 PagesShort-term Memory Affects Color Perception in Context The purpose of the experiment was to study the effects of short-term memory on perceptual observations, determine whether there is actually an independence between color memory and surface color assessment, and to discuss the differences between perception and memory characteristics. Another goal of this study was to estimate surface reflectance of an object from a general measurement of incoming light signals and figure out how it affects memory withRead MoreThe Human Computer : The Perception, Memories And Emotions That Make Up Human Consciousness973 Words   |  4 PagesThe human computer The thoughts , perceptions, memories and emotions that make up human consciousness. Cognition in widest definition encompasses all forms and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. Reductionism attempts to explain the processes of living organism using physical laws usually applied to nonliving objects. David Hume argued that the knowledge of cause and relationship based on the accumulation of subjective experiences, thus science explain events in terms ofRead MoreMultiple Regression Analysis Exam For Pathology Severity, Perception, Memory, Speak, And Hear1254 Words   |  6 Pagesco-ordinator Dr Devin Terhune Candidate number 33440401 Title Multiple Regression Analysis Exam Word count 1242  Results Delusional ideation A multiple regression analysis was run to predict delusional ideation from pathology severity, perception, memory, speak vs. hear, and imagine vs. hear with forced entry. There was linearity as assessed by partial regression plots and a plot of studentized residuals against the predicted values. There was independence of residuals, as assessed by a Durbin-WatsonRead MoreThe Perception Of The Film Association Of Memory Documented Through Various Ephemeral Forms910 Words   |  4 Pagesexplores the materiality of paper in association to memory documented through various ephemeral forms. Represented through documentation of photography in harmony with light, these scenes of crushed and manipulated forms of Japanese papers show landscape like formations alluding to that of the landscape of the mind. Expressed through this exploration of forms, parallels are drawn between the forms of paper and the mind and how paper holds a memory no matter what is done to it. †¨Fig. 1 sees a photo graphRead MoreHow Distraction Has On Altering Pain Perception Relative With An Individual s Working Memory Capacity3098 Words   |  13 Pagesmemory capacity of the individual and their ability to effectively engage in the distraction technique. This study aims to extend on previous research pertaining to working memory capacity, distractibility and pain perception. The objective of this study is to observe the effect distraction has on altering pain perception relative to an individual’s working memory capacity. In this study we will utilize the operational span task (OSPAN) developed by Turner and Engle (1989) to split the participantsRead MorePerception and Memory in The Keeper of the Books, The Men We Carry in Our Minds, and Once More to the Lake2551 Words   |  11 Pagesâ€Å"Once More to the Lake† all touch upon perception throughout their stories. Their perceptions thoroughly shape their stories, but their memories also influence and shadow their perception a s well. Throughout this essay I hope to prove how memories influence and tie together with our perception of our individuality. There are two different types of memory; individual and collective. Individual memory is defined in the article â€Å"Individual and Collective Memory† written by Sara Hanneman and BriannaRead MoreCognitive Psychology And Human Behavior930 Words   |  4 PagesCognitive psychology has evolved over the years. Researchers are constantly trying to find new ways to understand and define the human brain. Our memory is quite important in how we function on a day-to-day basis. Our memories help us to remember important functions such as combing our hair, brushing our teeth or getting dressed in the morning. Memories also help us to learn more information. Cognitive psychology refers to the study of human mental processes and their role of thinking, feeling, and

What Was the American Diet Like 50 Years Ago - 8269 Words

at was the I. What was the American diet like 50 years ago? a) Over the past 50 years, American diets have changed from leisurely family meals that were usually prepared at home using natural ingredients to today’s prepackaged, processed and convenience foods that are often eaten on the run with little thought towards nutrition or content. b) American diets have evolved in the last 50 years from natural ingredients to processed, high fat ingredients and will continue in the future to include convenience foods but with a greater emphasis on healthier choices. i) This wasn’t always the case. â€Å"Fifty years ago, people sitting down to a meal were simply looking for something hot, filling and, in most cases, inexpensive†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦show more content†¦xiii) This period was also the â€Å"golden age for food chemicals† with hundreds of additives and preservatives brought to market for the first time. s) Convenience was most important, and by the 1950s, a la rge variety of convenience foods made meal preparation easier than ever before. t) Advancements in technology also led to faster meal preparation. u) During the late 50s and 1960s, American’s attitudes towards nutrition changed as scientific research and other factors combined to heighten awareness. v) In 1959 came the discovery that eating polyunsaturated fats might lower serum cholesterol. xiv) This was followed in 1961 by further evidence linking cholesterol with arteriosclerosis. w) By 1962, nearly 25% of American families said they had made dietary changes that included less cholesterol. x) That same year, Rachel Carson’s book, Silent Spring, provided fodder for the debate concerning the possibility of synthetic chemicals reaching humans through the food chain. xv) There was controversy about food chemicals in general, and the modern consumer movement was launched in 1965 following publication of Ralph Nader’s book Unsafe At Any Speed. y) 50 years ago women still managed to burn up many more calories than their counterparts today. xvi) Research suggests the housework and general exercise that stay-at-home housewives did in 1953 were more successful atShow MoreRelatedHuman Health And Increase The Chances For Survival Of Life On Earth857 Words   |  4 Pagessurvival of life on earth as much as the evolution to a vegetarian diet (Einstein). â€Å"70 percent of all Americans are dying from diseases that are directly tied to their eating habits.† Studies show people who have a diet full of fruits, vegetables, and grains are more likely to live a healthy, happy life (Dworkin). 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I knew that I was not aloneRead MoreArchaeology : The Field Of Archaeology996 Words   |  4 Pagescalled archaeologists. What they do in this field is that they find and study the artifacts of past civilizations like tools and weapons, pottery, jewelry, and clothing (if it survived that passage of time). From analyzing artifacts, archaeologists are able to form hypothesizes of how that ancient culture would have lived and behaved, even if there is no written record. The field of archaeology helps, especially, with decoding the unknown history of the Native Americans before European contactRead MoreThe Human Diet And Its Effect On Our Society1584 Words   |  7 PagesThe human diet is shaped in evolution. We spent millions of years in a foraging lifestyle and our genome still expects us to eat this way (Gluckman et al., 2016). But recently we have adopted a new post-industrial lifestyle that seems to go against our genetic makeup because there is an increasing trend of metabolic diseases in our society. We noticed this trend decades ago and have been trying to explain it. In 1962, geneticist James Neel proposed the thrifty gene hypothesis, saying that some ofRead MoreObesity And Obesity Related Diseases1342 Words   |  6 PagesMore than one-third of U.S. adults are obese and there are many contributing factors. Many North Americans enjoy the most lavish lifestyle on Earth: Food is plentiful, work is automated and our downtime is easy. And it s making us fatter by the minute. Let’s delve into 10 reasons why people are fatter today than they’ve ever been. Because without knowing why, we can’t really come up with sensible solutions to correct the problem. 1. Too much fast food We’re busy people with less time for preparingRead MoreGluten for Punishment: Cutting Gluten from Your Diet1269 Words   |  5 PagesPunishment The diet industry is a billion dollar a year business. All making claims they have the solution that will melt away fat. Some even boasting that you don’t have to even change your routine. We are a society that has developed into wanting things bigger, better, and faster. Our diet quest is not an exception to the rule. Americans are quick to jump on the bandwagon (Synecdoche) without doing research, quickly get discouraged, and ride the diet roller coaster. With doubts ofRead MoreDiabetes : A Long Period Of Time1629 Words   |  7 Pages For a long period of time, diabetes has been perceived as a destructive and deadly disease. But what is diabetes? â€Å"Diabetes a condition in which the body does not accurately process food to use as energy. A large portion of the food we eat is converted into glucose, or sugar, for our bodies energy use. The pancreas is an organ that lies close to the stomach which makes a hormone called insulin to help glucose go ins ide the cells of our bodies. When a person has diabetes, their body either doesnRead More Eliminating Obesity and Autoimmune Disease Essay example1691 Words   |  7 Pagesmatter, and find the â€Å"new and/or improved† way to lose weight, improve the quality of life, or extend your years working towards the other two goals. Almost all of the methods prescribed can work; some are exercise and some are diet. For the most part though, achieving diet or exercise goals requires one to have great discipline. It has been proven, by each of these diet deveopers, that the diets they prescribe will work if the individual will just manage his caloric intake. Weight loss is the

Crazy Horse Essay Example For Students

Crazy Horse Essay Crazy Horse When I think back of the stories that I have heard about howthe Native American Indians were driven from their land andforced to live on the reservations one particular event comes tomy mind. That event is the Battle of the Little Big Horn. It isone of the few times that the Oglala Sioux made history with thembeing the ones who left the battlefield as winners. When storiesare told, or when the media dares to tamper with history, it isusually the American Indians who are looked upon as the bad guys.They are portrayed as savages who spent their time raiding wagontrains and scalping the white settlers just for fun. The mediahas lead us to believe that the American government was forced totake the land from these savage Indians. We should put the blamewhere it belongs, on the U.S. Government who lied, cheated, andstole from the Oglala forcing Crazy Horse, the great war chief,and many other leaders to surrender their nation in order to savethe lives of their people. In the nin eteenth century the most dominant nation in thewestern plains was the Sioux Nation. This nation was divided intoseven tribes: Oglalas, Brule, Minneconjou, Hunkpapa, No Bow,Two Kettle, and the Blackfoot. Of these tribes they had differentband. The Hunkpatila was one band of the Oglalas . One of the greatest war chiefs of all times came from thisband. His name was Crazy Horse. Crazy Horse was not given this name, on his birth date inthe fall of 1841. He was born of his father, Crazy Horse anOglala holy man, and his mother a sister of a Brule warrior,Spotted Tail. As the boy grew older his hair was wavy so his people gave him the nickname of Curly . He was togo by Curly until the summer of 1858, after a battle with theArapahos. Curlys brave charged against the Arapahos led hisfather to give Curly the name Crazy Horse. This was the name ofhis father and of many fathers before him . In the 1850s, the country where the Sioux Nation lived, wasbeing invaded by the white settlers. This was u psetting for manyof the tribes. They did not understand the ways of the whites.When the whites tore into the land with plows and hunted thesacred buffalo just for the hides this went against the moraleand religious beliefs of the Sioux. The white government began tobuild forts. In 1851, Fort Laramie was built along the NorthPlatte river in Sioux territory . In 1851, the settlers began complaining of the Indians who would not allow them to go where they wanted. U.S. Agents drew upa treaty that required the Indians to give safe passage to thewhite settlers along the Oregon Trail. In return the governmentpromised yearly supplies of guns, ammunition, flour, sugar,coffee, tobacco, blankets, and bacon. These supplies were to be provided for fifty-five years. Ten thousand Sioux gathered at thefort to listen to the words of the white government and to beshowered with gifts. In addition the treaty wanted the Indians toallow all settlers to cross their lands. They were to divide theplains int o separate territories and each tribe was not to crossthe border of their territory. The treaty also wanted no wars tobe waged on other tribes. They wanted each Indian nation tochoose a leader that would speak for the entire nation. ManyIndians did not like this treaty and only after weeks of briberydid the whites finally convince a sizable group of leaders to sign. The Oglalas were among those who refused (Matthiessen 6). This Treaty however did not stop the trouble between theIndians and the settlers. The Indians however, did not causeviolent trouble, they would perhaps approach a covered wagon totrade or extract gifts of food. The most daring warrior might make away with a metal pot or pan but nothing violent like thebooks and movies lead us to believe . The straw that broke the camels back took place on August17, 1854 when the relations between the Indians and Whites wereshattered. Among the settlers heading west was a group of Mormonsand as they were passing, a few miles south of Fort Laramie, anIndian stole a cow. The Mormons reported this to Lieutenant HughB. Fleming, the commander of the post. Fleming demanded that theoffender, High Forehead of the Minneconjou, face charges. ChiefConquering Bear suggested that the Mormons come to his herd of ponies and pick out the best pony he had to replace the cow,which to the Sioux these ponies were their wealth. This seemed tobe a very gracious offer. Fleming would not agree and sentLieutenant John L. Grattan to bring back the warrior. WhenGrattan arrived at Conquering Bears camp, he was given anotheroffer. This time they could choose five ponies from five herdsamong the tribes. Grattan refused and began to open fire. This outrageous act of war was not calledfor. The Mormons would have surely been satisfied with the poniesor the money the ponies would have bought. The government justdid not want to keep the Indian-White relationship peaceful.Crazy Horse, then called Curly, was only thirteen when thesoldiers and th e Indians fought. The Indians outnumbered the soldiers and won the battle. Crazy Horse eventually became a leader of his people. Intodays society our leaders are given money and gifts but in thetimes of Crazy Horse it was almost the opposite. He was expectedto live modestly, keep only what he needed and give away therest. After hunting he would give the needy the choicest meat andkeep the stringy meat for himself. He did however, have the honorand prestige that allowed him to make the decisions for the tribe. As well as other Sioux leaders, Crazy Horse lead his peopleinto the Powder River country. The reason for this move was toleave behind the ways of the white man and continue living theways of the Sioux. The white man had brought to their countrysickness, liquor and damaging lifestyles much different from thelifestyles of the Sioux. In 1865, U.S. officials wanted to obtain land from theIndians. They offered many different bribes, such as gifts andliquor, to the Indians who lived around the forts. They were very good at making the sell of land seem temporary and they convincedmany that what the right thing to do was sell. The land theywanted was access land into the Powder River country. Thegovernment did not have the luck they needed in obtaining theland with money or bribes. So in the summer of 1865 they sentmore than two thousand soldiers from Fort Laramie into the PowderRiver country. In 1866 the government, knowing that the land they wantedwas worth much more, offered the Sioux fifteen thousand dollarsannually for access into Powder River country. The Indians didallow whites to use the Bozeman Trail just as they allowedimmigrants to use the Holy Road. The U.S. Government had an obligation to protect its citizens but not to provoke a crisis.They did create a crisis when they established forts in the heartof Oglala territory. After conquering the confederates the U.S.Army was full of optimism and wanted desperately to have an allout war to exterminate the Sioux. Although the Indians wereallowing the whites to use the Bozeman Trail, the government wasnot satisfied. They wanted the legal right to use the trail. E.B.Taylor, a government agent at one of the Indian Offices,tricked some of the Indian Leaders into going to Fort Laramie in1866 for a treaty. He deliberately attempted to deceive them; hesaid nothing about building forts along the trail, only that theywanted to use the Bozeman Trail. He offered them guns,ammunition, gifts plus money. The Indians did not sell (Ambrose213-214). In June 1867, the government officials produced a newtreaty. This treaty, like all the ones before, only promisedlavish gifts to those who would sign. One of the Oglala chiefs,Red Cloud, wanted more for his nation than the simple giftsoffered. He wanted the troops to move from the forts; Reno,Philkearny and C.F. Smith. During the summer of 1868 his requestwas accepted. The troops moved. A civil war hero William TecumsehSherman moved into the territory as the new commander of the plains. He had plans to get the treaty signed. His hopes were to,shut up the congressional critics, get the Sioux to agree on atreaty and maintain the armys morale. After negotiations weremade Red Cloud lead one hundred-and twenty-five leaders of theSioux nations to sign the treaty of 1868. This treaty guaranteed absolute and undisturbed use of the Great Sioux Reservation. Noperson shall ever be permitted to pass over, settle upon, orreside in territory described in this article, or withoutconsent of the Indians pass through the same (Matthiessen 7-8).This treaty also stated that the hunting rights on the landbetween the Black Hills and the Big Horn Mountains as long asthe grass shall grow and the water flows.(Guttmacher 73). Itforced the Indians to be farmers and live in houses. There couldbe no changes made to the treaty without three fourths of alladult males of the Sioux nation agreeing (Ambrose 282). The Indians had divided into those who agreed with th etreaty, the friendly and those who wanted nothing to do withthe treaty, the hostile. The U.S. government did not recognizethese separate groups. They forbid trade with the Powder RiverIndians until all Indians moved to the reservation. This was notin the Treaty of 1868, (Guttmacher 76). Even though the government was getting the best part of thetreaty they were not satisfied with progress. In 1871 the IndianAppropriation Bill was passed which stated hereafter no Indiannation or tribe within the United States shall be acknowledgedor recognized as an independent nation, tribe or power with whomthe U.S. may contract by treaty (Matthiessen 7-8). General Armstrong Custer was appointed as the new commanderof the plains. He led the Seventh Calvary on a mission to subduea band of hostile Cheyenne. The calvary came across an Indianvillage and attacked them instead. Black Kettle, the chief of thevillage and his wife were killed as they rode to surrender. Thiskilling of 100 Cheyenne, mostly w omen and children, and 800ponies was advertised as Custers victory against the brutalsavages (Guttmacher 81-82). The U.S. Army led an expedition into the Sioux territory.According to the Treaty of 1868 this expedition was not legal.The expedition was to survey land for the Northern PacificRailroad. The railroad meant progress. (Guttmacher 81). Since the civil war the American economy was booming.Railroad stocks led the way. On, September 18 1873, bankingcrashed. Farm prices plummeted, grasshopper plaques ruined crops,yellow fever struck in the Mississippi Valley, and unemploymentwent sky high. The government figured that its role was to pourmoney into the economy. The gold supply was insufficient.President Grants solution to the economy was to open newterritory for exploration. So in the spring of 1874 troops weresent to open a fort in the Black Hills. The government,exaggerated at the best or lied at the worst, said the Indianswere not keeping up their part of the treaty. Custer wa s incharge of this expedition. During this expedition Custer claimedthat there was gold in the Black Hills. Grant looked at this asan opportunity to show the country he could pull them from thedepression and he opened the Black Hills for prospecting. Thisbroke the treaty of 1868 again (Ambrose 343-346). The Black Hillswas a sacred place to the Sioux. It was a place where spiritsdwelled, a holy place called Pa Sapa by the Sioux. The whites hadonly the crudest concept of what the hills meant to the Indians.By 1876 ten thousand whites lived in Custer City, the frontiertown of the southern Black Hills. Agency Indians were not livingvery well on the reservations. Government agents were corrupt.They would accept diseased cattle, rotten flour and wormy corn.They would get a kickback on the profits. The Indians wereundernourished and even starving. The agents also claimed theIndians exaggerated in their numbers just to receive morerations. However, in a census conducted by the government tr yingto prove this, they found that the Indians were actually claimingless (Ambrose 359). In 1876, the agencies were taken from the churches and givento the army to control. This was petitioned to Washington with statements that soldiers were obnoxious and their dislike forIndians was very obvious. Also the army was corrupting theIndians by introducing and encouraging alcohol and gambling. Thepetition also stated that all the agency troubles had been causeddirectly or indirectly by the soldiers. No change in policy wasdone on behalf of these petitions (Kadlecek 33). Unwilling to pay for the Black Hills and unable to defeatthe Sioux in war, on August, 15, 1876 Congress passed the SiouxAppropriation Bill. This bill stated that further provisionswould not be given to the Sioux until the hostiles gave up theBlack Hills, Powder River country and Bighorn country. They wouldalso have to move to the Missouri River in Central Dakota or toOklahoma. Upset because of there defeat the Government demandedunconditional surrender of the Sioux or they would starve thosein the agencies. Red Cloud and the other chiefs were told to signa treaty or their people would starve. Crazy horse and SittingBull continued to fight for land that was stolen from them in amisleading treaty (Ambrose 417-418). The Treaty of 1876 was notsigned by at least three fourths of the male members of the Sioux nation as the Treaty of 1868 had stipulated. So they cheated bycalling the treaty an Agreement instead of a treaty. The government had changed or disturbed nearly every part ofthe Indians lives. They had taken their horses (their wealth),taken their land, taken the buffalo and taken their tipis. Theystill had their religion. They had seven ceremonial rites ofwhich two were the most beneficial; the Vision Quest and the SunDance. The Vision quest was an individual dance and the Sun Dancea community affair. In June 1877 the biggest Sun Dance seen onthe reservation, twenty thousand strong, was held to ho nor CrazyHorse. This was the last big Sun Dance (Kadlecek 37-42). Crazy Horse was finally persuaded to bring his people in tolive on the reservation. Crazy horse was lied to when agovernment official told him that he was needed at a conference.He realized this was a trap when he saw bars on the windows. Hedrew his knife and attempted to break loose. A white soldier,William Gentiles, lunged at Crazy Horse with a fixed bayonet thatpunctured his kidney. Crazy Horse died September, 5 1877. The Sioux Indians had lost nearly everything that made thema strong nation. In 1881 the government prohibited allreservations from allowing the Sun Dance. The government went against the First Amendment and took away the Siouxs greatestreligious ceremony. General Sherman, never known as an Indianlover, said a reservation was a parcel of land inhabited byIndians and surrounded by thieves (Matthiessen 17). This type ofharassment did not stop. In 1887 the General Allotment Act (theDawes Act) was passed. This Act was designed to assist the Indians to mainstream into America. Each male Indian was given160 acres of land from the reservation. Of course the excess landwas taken by the government and sold to the whites. The Indianswere not accustom to dealing with thieves and the majorityof them lost their land through shady dealings. The U.S. Government used many deceptions to obtain the landthe Indians once owned. The Sioux Indians were not treated withthe most respect to say the least. They must be commended forstaying strong and still being a big part of the United Statestoday. Youth Essay BibliographyDebo, Angie.History of the Indians of the US. Norman, OK. Oklahoma Press, 1970Biographies

Mahilet Sayed Essays - Endocrine System, Motivation, Meals

Mahilet Sayed Chapter 13 writing assignment One aspect of chapter 1 3 that I found quite interesting was the discussion on factors that affect self-control in children. A study looking at immediate and delayed rewards was done to further understand self-control in children. Each child had the choice of choosing a mediocre snack but getting it immediately or waiting for a duration of time and then receiving a better snack. The researchers also told some students to think about and imagine the snack but didn't prompt others. They found that the kids that were told to imagine the snack, wanted the mediocre snack a lot faster than those that weren't told anything. Kids that visually saw the snack were also found to want the mediocre snack a lot faster. These results could be due to the increased prompts the researchers gave some of the kids. When the kids were prompted to think about the snack or saw it in front of them, they are more likely to fixate on it and want it. This could be due to multiple factors. Future experiments could examine the brain activity of those that were prompted and those that weren't. Are there any increases in "happy" chemicals, such as dopamine, oxytocin, serotonin, or endorphins that cause the children that thought about the snack or saw it to want an immediate gratification?